Working with EntreComp
in vocational education
Guide to entrepreneurial
competencies
Marco van Gelderen and Thomas Lans
Foreword
The initiative for writing this material, originally published as a book in the Dutch language, came about during a function on the roof terrace of the De Basket restaurant at the Campus of the Vrije Universiteit, where we (Thomas and Marco) caught up with each other and got into a conversation. The drink was on the occasion of a PhD research on entrepreneurship education. We both expressed the wish to do something with the accessibility of research into entrepreneurship education, and entrepreneurial behaviour in particular. A second wish was to link this directly to practical exercises. We have both been active in training and education in the field of entrepreneurial competency development for more than 15 years, and as such we have developed and tried out numerous exercises and formats with students in secondary education, vocational education, higher vocational education and above all university education.
We set ourselves to work with the book “On the shoulders of giants” by Paul Kirschner as an inspiring example. In this book, Kirschner makes scientific studies accessible to a broader audience. We chose vocational education teachers as our primary target group, based on the assumption that many of these teachers do not have the time (and inclination) to go through scientific publications in their free time. In addition to vocational teachers, a second target group came to mind while writing, namely secondary school teachers. This group, particularly in upper secondary education, is increasingly interested in entrepreneurship education. However, the book focuses on tertiary education, and this is also reflected in the terminology used. For example, we generally speak of students, and not of apprentices as is more usual in secondary education.
We chose the EntreComp framework developed on behalf of the European Commission as a starting point because it is widely used in Europe, it is easily accessible, it includes a relevant selection of entrepreneurial competencies, and above all, it applies a broad, inclusive definition of entrepreneurship. EntreComp defines entrepreneurship as 'putting into practice opportunities and ideas to create value for other people, where the value created can be social, cultural, environmental, or financial'. According to this view, entrepreneurial behaviour can manifest itself in starting a business, but also in many other ways. This idea is very much in line with our own convictions.
To make a good connection between our material and vocational education, we asked a group of enterprising teachers to think along with us. Their feedback was extremely important, because we obviously wanted to make something that the target group would recognise the importance of. We would like to thank Sultan Göksen ('Juf Göksen'), André Leeflang, Ankie Swakhoven, Anton Aker, Kim Beerens and Robert Soesman for the time and energy they put into reading and commenting on the material, and for their contributions in the sessions that we unfortunately had to hold online due to COVID-19.
Special thanks go to Anton Aker and Kim Beerens who wrote the text and insights sections on Financial and Economic Literacy, and Planning and Management, respectively. They shared with us some exercises they do with their own vocational education students. Finally, we would like to thank O2LAB, and Monique Aerts and Guut Arnoldus in particular, for their support of this project. By adopting the book and supporting us in the writing process, both in terms of content and process, they made a very important contribution to the creation of this material. Thanks for that!
Marco van Gelderen
Thomas Lans
We set ourselves to work with the book “On the shoulders of giants” by Paul Kirschner as an inspiring example. In this book, Kirschner makes scientific studies accessible to a broader audience. We chose vocational education teachers as our primary target group, based on the assumption that many of these teachers do not have the time (and inclination) to go through scientific publications in their free time. In addition to vocational teachers, a second target group came to mind while writing, namely secondary school teachers. This group, particularly in upper secondary education, is increasingly interested in entrepreneurship education. However, the book focuses on tertiary education, and this is also reflected in the terminology used. For example, we generally speak of students, and not of apprentices as is more usual in secondary education.
We chose the EntreComp framework developed on behalf of the European Commission as a starting point because it is widely used in Europe, it is easily accessible, it includes a relevant selection of entrepreneurial competencies, and above all, it applies a broad, inclusive definition of entrepreneurship. EntreComp defines entrepreneurship as 'putting into practice opportunities and ideas to create value for other people, where the value created can be social, cultural, environmental, or financial'. According to this view, entrepreneurial behaviour can manifest itself in starting a business, but also in many other ways. This idea is very much in line with our own convictions.
To make a good connection between our material and vocational education, we asked a group of enterprising teachers to think along with us. Their feedback was extremely important, because we obviously wanted to make something that the target group would recognise the importance of. We would like to thank Sultan Göksen ('Juf Göksen'), André Leeflang, Ankie Swakhoven, Anton Aker, Kim Beerens and Robert Soesman for the time and energy they put into reading and commenting on the material, and for their contributions in the sessions that we unfortunately had to hold online due to COVID-19.
Special thanks go to Anton Aker and Kim Beerens who wrote the text and insights sections on Financial and Economic Literacy, and Planning and Management, respectively. They shared with us some exercises they do with their own vocational education students. Finally, we would like to thank O2LAB, and Monique Aerts and Guut Arnoldus in particular, for their support of this project. By adopting the book and supporting us in the writing process, both in terms of content and process, they made a very important contribution to the creation of this material. Thanks for that!
Marco van Gelderen
Thomas Lans
Purpose and use of this material
Insights from the scholarly field of entrepreneurship education are not often given priority in teacher training or professional development programmes. Knowledge on entrepreneurship education, being developed, but little of it is being disseminated specifically for the target group of vocational education students, let alone used in the classroom. The EntreComp document itself also offers some guidance as to the activities, processes and behaviours involved and thus the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes underlying the 15 competencies. Inspired by the arrival of the European EntreComp framework in 2016 (see Further Reading box below [1]), we want to extend that. We do this in particular for teachers and trainers who want to work even harder on broad-based entrepreneurship education in vocational education and secondary schools. The competencies of EntreComp are developed at the age of the very group of students these teachers serve, and they have a demonstrable effect at a later age [2].
The choice of teachers as the target group for this book is deliberate, as they play a crucial role in the development of entrepreneurial competencies of their students, as facilitators of learning and as role models. However, despite the fact that many teachers are already quite experienced, not all teachers are equally advanced in this field. Often, teachers have little time to deepen their understanding of entrepreneurship education, as it is different from their 'own' discipline, they may therefore feel less responsible for it, and they may not immediately see its relevance. In addition, developing the entrepreneurial competencies in this book is rarely a priority in teacher training programmes. The book therefore offers a basis for teachers who want to start and/or develop the entrepreneurial adventure in an evidence-informed way.
In the individual competency sections we discuss all 15 competencies from Entre-Comp. For each competency, we include the following sections:
Introduction: The relevance and key dimensions of the competency
Insights: Some underlying scientific insights from theory and research about the competencies and what they mean in the context of entrepreneurship education. We do this in a far from exhaustive format. Instead, we have chosen to keep this section short, and to limit ourselves to a few insights and exercises. Our aim is inspiration, not comprehensiveness.
Further reading: For each competency we refer to a number of sources with a number in [brackets] for those who want to deepen their understanding of theory and research on a competence. At the end of the discussion of each competency there is a box 'Further reading' in which these, mostly scientific, sources are briefly explained.
Competence circle: For each competence, there is a description of the knowledge, skills and abilities to be practised.
Exercises for students: Several concrete, practical exercises, explaining how the exercises are linked to the insights. The exercises are also not exhaustive and do not provide a blueprint or lesson plan for the described competence, but are meant to inspire to work with this competence in the context of broad entrepreneurship education.
Measuring student progress: A table describing different levels of attitude, skill, and knowledge. Below, we will discuss assessment in more detail.
Our book is obviously not the only resource on the development of enterprising competencies. Various websites also offer very interesting material on the development of entrepreneurial competencies, for a selection see box Further Reading [3].
The choice of teachers as the target group for this book is deliberate, as they play a crucial role in the development of entrepreneurial competencies of their students, as facilitators of learning and as role models. However, despite the fact that many teachers are already quite experienced, not all teachers are equally advanced in this field. Often, teachers have little time to deepen their understanding of entrepreneurship education, as it is different from their 'own' discipline, they may therefore feel less responsible for it, and they may not immediately see its relevance. In addition, developing the entrepreneurial competencies in this book is rarely a priority in teacher training programmes. The book therefore offers a basis for teachers who want to start and/or develop the entrepreneurial adventure in an evidence-informed way.
In the individual competency sections we discuss all 15 competencies from Entre-Comp. For each competency, we include the following sections:
Introduction: The relevance and key dimensions of the competency
Insights: Some underlying scientific insights from theory and research about the competencies and what they mean in the context of entrepreneurship education. We do this in a far from exhaustive format. Instead, we have chosen to keep this section short, and to limit ourselves to a few insights and exercises. Our aim is inspiration, not comprehensiveness.
Further reading: For each competency we refer to a number of sources with a number in [brackets] for those who want to deepen their understanding of theory and research on a competence. At the end of the discussion of each competency there is a box 'Further reading' in which these, mostly scientific, sources are briefly explained.
Competence circle: For each competence, there is a description of the knowledge, skills and abilities to be practised.
Exercises for students: Several concrete, practical exercises, explaining how the exercises are linked to the insights. The exercises are also not exhaustive and do not provide a blueprint or lesson plan for the described competence, but are meant to inspire to work with this competence in the context of broad entrepreneurship education.
Measuring student progress: A table describing different levels of attitude, skill, and knowledge. Below, we will discuss assessment in more detail.
Our book is obviously not the only resource on the development of enterprising competencies. Various websites also offer very interesting material on the development of entrepreneurial competencies, for a selection see box Further Reading [3].
Entrepreneurial competencies: a matter of attitude, knowledge and skills
Over the past decades, scientific literature has focused on further defining the 'what' question of entrepreneurship. The idea of entrepreneurial competencies is particularly useful here, because competencies include attitude, knowledge and skills. Entrepreneurship is something you do, which makes skills extremely important. At the same time it is at least as important that you are willing do it. That is the attitude component. And finally, knowledge is essential. This is often domain-specific. Knowledge of an industry, a technology, a sector, or a market has a direct influence on the entrepreneurial paths that someone develops, takes and follows. With domain-specific knowledge, attitude and skills, you are able to identify problems and formulate possible solutions [see for example the competency Creativity]. We will therefore consistently use the term entrepreneurial competencies on this website, and not for example entrepreneurial skills, to indicate that knowledge and attitude are of equal importance.
Various theoretical perspectives have been used to try to draw up lists of competencies for entrepreneurship. As context and domain play an important role in determining which competencies are needed, there are many different 'competency lists' in entrepreneurship research. One way of choosing among competence lists is to use the perspective of the entrepreneurial process. There is much less discussion about this. The entrepreneurial process is essentially about 1. Seeing ideas and opportunities; 2. Gathering and using resources; and 3. Taking action. These are the terms used in the European EntreComp framework (see box Further Reading [1]). In this framework, developed in 2016, thinking in terms of competencies is central, but at the same time the relationship with the processes of entrepreneurship is explicitly present. The EntreComp framework covers the three core processes of entrepreneurship, with each of them covering five underlying competencies. The EntreComp has been worked out in detail, is freely available (in English), is widely used in education in the EU, and is used as a reference by many training courses. The elaboration of the competencies in this book, however, is not a literal translation of EntreComp, but our own interpretation of the three core processes and 15 underlying competencies.
Various theoretical perspectives have been used to try to draw up lists of competencies for entrepreneurship. As context and domain play an important role in determining which competencies are needed, there are many different 'competency lists' in entrepreneurship research. One way of choosing among competence lists is to use the perspective of the entrepreneurial process. There is much less discussion about this. The entrepreneurial process is essentially about 1. Seeing ideas and opportunities; 2. Gathering and using resources; and 3. Taking action. These are the terms used in the European EntreComp framework (see box Further Reading [1]). In this framework, developed in 2016, thinking in terms of competencies is central, but at the same time the relationship with the processes of entrepreneurship is explicitly present. The EntreComp framework covers the three core processes of entrepreneurship, with each of them covering five underlying competencies. The EntreComp has been worked out in detail, is freely available (in English), is widely used in education in the EU, and is used as a reference by many training courses. The elaboration of the competencies in this book, however, is not a literal translation of EntreComp, but our own interpretation of the three core processes and 15 underlying competencies.
Figure 1: The EntreComp model
(Source: Bacigalupo, M., Kampylis, P., Punie, Y., & Van den Brande, G. (2016). EntreComp: The Entrepreneurship Competence Framework Luxembourg: Publication Office of the European Union)
(Source: Bacigalupo, M., Kampylis, P., Punie, Y., & Van den Brande, G. (2016). EntreComp: The Entrepreneurship Competence Framework Luxembourg: Publication Office of the European Union)
Assessment
Not everyone can be measured against the same yardstick. How do we know if students are making progress? In measuring the degree of competence in the EntreComp we come up against the issue that it is difficult to quantify the degree of competence for these competencies. This applies both in an objective sense and in a subjective sense. The competencies discussed in this book cannot be compared to a skill such as, for example, speed typing, where one can easily determine the number of keystrokes and the number of errors per minute. Objective assessments generally lack a validated specification as well as a measure of the dimensions that make up a competency. With subjective assessments the frame of reference varies, and it also shifts over time. For example, suppose a student considers herself quite good at any competency featured in EntreComp (giving herself a score of 7/10). She starts training herself on the competency, studies it in depth, does exercises, discovers that she was not as good as she thought, but given the progress she has made, she now considers herself reasonably good at the competency (and again gives herself the score 7/10). It then seems as if the training was ineffective (starting score and final score are identical), while in fact progress has been made.
At the same time, the example offers handles for how progress can be measured. The extent to which a student has studied a competency in depth (studying sources, discussions in class, reflections on one's own behaviour, displaying knowledge about a competency) can be reliably determined. This also applies to the quantity and quality of the effort made by a student (e.g., number of hours practiced, degree of dedication). The example of the student give just above also suggests that the starting point of the students differ. One was already quite good at a competency, the other less so. In both cases, progress can be assessed. This is not about making the level of competence objectively measurable, but about whether progress has been made. Formative assessment plays an important role in this, based on the idea of making learning visible, and to encourage reflection and self-direction. The action- and experience-based nature of entrepreneurship education means that it is important for students to know what and how they are learning, and for them to be able to assess themselves (and their fellow students, if desirable and possible) and manage their learning process. Developments in this area are rapid, and are certainly not the exclusive domain of entrepreneurship education. The use of diaries, situational assessment, and storyline methods are now also being explored in the context of entrepreneurship education and are potentially valuable additions to the entrepreneurship teacher's formative toolbox. This brings us to the next point that can be assessed: The degree of independence of leaning. The EntreComp rubrics address this, and we have adopted this approach for the rubrics ('Measuring Progress') at the end of the discussion of each competency. The rubric can be used to score the extent to which a student has to be encouraged and supported, or takes responsibility for the learning process him- or herself.
At the same time, the example offers handles for how progress can be measured. The extent to which a student has studied a competency in depth (studying sources, discussions in class, reflections on one's own behaviour, displaying knowledge about a competency) can be reliably determined. This also applies to the quantity and quality of the effort made by a student (e.g., number of hours practiced, degree of dedication). The example of the student give just above also suggests that the starting point of the students differ. One was already quite good at a competency, the other less so. In both cases, progress can be assessed. This is not about making the level of competence objectively measurable, but about whether progress has been made. Formative assessment plays an important role in this, based on the idea of making learning visible, and to encourage reflection and self-direction. The action- and experience-based nature of entrepreneurship education means that it is important for students to know what and how they are learning, and for them to be able to assess themselves (and their fellow students, if desirable and possible) and manage their learning process. Developments in this area are rapid, and are certainly not the exclusive domain of entrepreneurship education. The use of diaries, situational assessment, and storyline methods are now also being explored in the context of entrepreneurship education and are potentially valuable additions to the entrepreneurship teacher's formative toolbox. This brings us to the next point that can be assessed: The degree of independence of leaning. The EntreComp rubrics address this, and we have adopted this approach for the rubrics ('Measuring Progress') at the end of the discussion of each competency. The rubric can be used to score the extent to which a student has to be encouraged and supported, or takes responsibility for the learning process him- or herself.
Read more
[1] The document that is the starting point for this book, and which this book hopes to be a supplement.
[2] Martin Obschonka and colleagues conducted research into the effect of developing entrepreneurial competencies at an early age (14-15 years old.) Their study shows that 'early', broad competence development influences the entrepreneurial process later in life. Effects were found on progress (being able to make faster progress in the entrepreneurial process), and on number (the likelihood that someone will start several enterprises during his/her lifetime).
[3] There are many great, useful websites for entrepreneurship education. A number of them are mentioned in the 'exercises' section for some competencies. Without being exhaustive, here are some additional resources.
- Bacigalupo, M., Kampylis, P., Punie, Y., & Van den Brande, G. (2016). EntreComp: The entrepreneurship competence framework. Luxembourg: Publication Office of the European Union. https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC101518
[2] Martin Obschonka and colleagues conducted research into the effect of developing entrepreneurial competencies at an early age (14-15 years old.) Their study shows that 'early', broad competence development influences the entrepreneurial process later in life. Effects were found on progress (being able to make faster progress in the entrepreneurial process), and on number (the likelihood that someone will start several enterprises during his/her lifetime).
- Obschonka, M., Silbereisen, R. K., Schmitt-Rodermund, E., & Stuetzer, M. (2011). Nascent entrepreneurship and the developing individual: Early entrepreneurial competence in adolescence and venture creation success during the career. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(1), 121-133.
[3] There are many great, useful websites for entrepreneurship education. A number of them are mentioned in the 'exercises' section for some competencies. Without being exhaustive, here are some additional resources.
- https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository: European Commission publications, https://entrecompeurope.eu/resources/: Range of resources on EntreComp collected by the EU, including the EntreComp publication and the EntreComp playbook, linking the EntreComp framework to design principles and exercises for entrepreneurship education
- https://heinnovate.eu/ : On the HEInnovate website you will find, among others, the tools EPIC (self-assessment tool for entrepreneurial competencies) and entreTime (specifically for teachers).
- www.effectuation.org : Community for teachers and researchers concerned with the theory and practice of effectuation.
- www.etctoolkit.org.uk: Association of Entrepreneurship Teachers in the UK, with lots of useful tips and a comprehensive toolkit for integrating entrepreneurship education into domain-specific subjects
- https://www.strategyzer.com/ : The place to find a lot of information about common tools used in entrepreneurship education
- www.enterprisingcompetencies.com: Website of one of the authors of this book with overview articles concerning a number of entrepreneurial competencies.